Programming Fundamentals

Python, Java and C++ — where each came from, what each is for, how FAANG uses them, and which one you should start with.

Named boxes in memory, the types that describe what's inside them, and the bugs that happen when you get types wrong — in Python, Java and C++.

if/else decisions, for and while loops, and the logic operators that combine them — the patterns behind every program ever written.

Parameters, return values, scope, and pass-by-value vs pass-by-reference — how code gets named, reused and reasoned about.

Functions that call themselves: the leap of faith, base cases, the call stack made visible, and the bridge to trees, backtracking and DP.

Who frees the memory: manual C++ vs garbage-collected Java/Python, leaks in every language, RAII, and what GC pauses cost in production.

Classes, objects, methods and the four pillars — your first object-oriented programs in Python, Java and C++.

What happens when code goes wrong — try/catch, raising your own errors, finally/with, and the difference between expected and impossible failures.

Lists, dictionaries, sets and tuples — the four containers every program is built from, and how to choose between them.

Reading and writing files — text, CSV and JSON — plus paths, encodings, and why 'with' is non-negotiable.